The challenge when trying to answer questions about history is that all we can rely on is evidence that has come to us (such as texts or archaeological evidence) and often it is not 100% clear what happened.

In any case, there are some texts that say that 'Umar ibn al-Khattab ordered that the line "prayer is better than sleep" be added to the Fajr adhan. For instance, in al-Muwatta' (a prominent early Sunni source), it is said that the mu'adhdhin came to Umar ibn al-Khattab at fajr time and found him sleeping, so he told him, "Prayer is better than sleep" (to tell him to get up), and then 'Umar ibn al-Khattab ordered that it be added to the adhan. (See the relevant chapter in the book on salat in the Muwatta')

However, some people, especially Sunnis, hold a different view.

I think it is reasonable to say that all Muslims who do the adhan try to do the adhan in the way they think is correct and the way the Prophet (S) intended it. Shi'i fiqh does not prescribe "prayer is better than sleep" in the adhan because the dominant Shi'i view is that this is was not how the Prophet (S) instructed Muslims to do it. At the end of the day, Allah judges on intentions, and we do our best to follow the Sunnah!

The verse of the Qur'an discussing this (7:143) does not say that Moses saw Allah in the mountains. Rather, it says that if Allah were to manifest Himself to the mountain and it were to remain standing, then Moses would see Allah. However, that does not happen; Allah unveils some aspect of His greatness before the mountain, and the mountain shatters to pieces. (It is said in hadith that the way that Allah did this was by having one of the cherubim - i.e. one of the angels - shine part of its light onto the mountain.) Also, Moses passes out. Thus, Moses understands that no one and nothing can bear seeing Allah. 

The Islamic tradition does not say that human beings are fully different from animals. Like animals, human beings eat, drink, move around, sleep, mate, fight, grow up, and have social communities. Allah says of animals: "There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you. Nothing have we omitted from the Book, and they (all) shall be gathered to their Lord in the end." Animals have their own ways of praising Allah just as human beings have their own ways.

However, what makes human beings special or different is not their similarities with animals but rather their differences, especially the human soul. Allah speaks of breathing some aspect of the divine spirit into the human being. As a result, the human being has free will, a strong intellect and capacity for abstraction, can develop or devolve spiritually to very high or low levels, can rise higher than the angels, and can manifest a variety of the names of Allah. It is the human being that took on the risk/responsibility for these things, as mentioned in the Qur'an, whereas animals did not. Therefore there is a difference between the human being and other animals, even though there are also some similarities. 

Otherwise one could also say that human beings are similar to piles of dirt, because all the elements that make up the human being come from the earth, and yet it is this quality of life and soul that make a human being different from a pile of elements.

How much this relates to DNA is an open question, but it is my own understanding that at least some of what distinguishes the human soul is not material in origin and does not come from DNA.

The next part of the quotation reads: “I recognized God through revoking the determinations and breaking the intentions. When I determined and I was prevented from achieving my determination and I intended and the fate contradicted my intention, I realized that the administrator was other than me.”

My understanding of this is that sometimes things do not happen in life as we plan or expect, either immediately or long-term. For instance, I may intend to go somewhere, but be stopped by illness, traffic, an unexpected visitor, an unexpected job, etc. I may never intend to go somewhere but be given an unexpected opportunity or gift. (For instance, how some people do not have the resources to perform the hajj but nonetheless are able to do it because someone else facilitates it for them. Some people have the money but are never able to go.)  This is true for everyday things as well as long-term things like a university education, a job, a marriage, etc.

Often, when you look back at the big picture, you can see that there was in fact a fate plan, and things did not happen randomly. This is a sort of internal evidence that there is a Planner. Of course, we still have free will and should make our efforts to plan and do our best in things!

The idea that the Prophet (S) passed away in the lap of A'ishah is found in some Sunni texts and is generally not shared by Shi'is. Other texts say that he called Imam 'Ali (A) to him before he passed away, and this view is generally the one adopted by Shi'is. Here is a Shi'i view on his last moments: https://www.al-islam.org/life-muhammad-prophet-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/death-and-burial 

In any case, it wouldn't have been fair for the Prophet (S) to favour A'ishah above his other wives at that time.

That being said, I don't think there is a lot of benefit in speculating over how much he did or did not love her, at the end of the day they were married and the Prophet (S) had a noble and generous personality and extended love to many people, this was part of what made him special and beloved in turn.

I am not sure if it is possible for anyone to offer a conclusive viewpoint on the spiritual impact of using credit cards, since credit cards are quite new and are part of the institutional structure, as opposed to collecting interest from someone vulnerable in a person-to-person transaction.

However, at the least, having credit card debt causes a lot of stress, and having a credit card can also encourage overconsumption and spending beyond one's means, so it is good to be cautious of these things unless it is an emergency or there is no other option. No one ever not-regrets having to pay interest on a credit card.

As for interest in general, the Qur'an is quite clear about its impact. For instance: "Those who devour usury shall not rise except as one rises who is felled by the touch of Satan. That is because they say, 'Buying and selling are simply like usury,' though God has permitted buying and selling and forbidden usury. One who, after receiving counsel from his Lord, desists shall have what is past and his affair goes to God. And as for those who go back, they are the inhabitants of the Fire, abiding therein. God blights usury and causes acts of charity to grow...."(2:275-6)

In addition, it is related that Imam Ali (A) said: “The Holy Prophet (S) has cursed one who accepts interest, one who pays interest, one who buys interest, one who sells interest, one who writes the contract of interest and one who is the witness of this transaction.”