A Comparative Study of the Song of Roland, the Poem of the Cid, and the Rawdah Khani1

Introduction

Literature is the reflection of a society. Studying the literature of a particular people or period provides us with a privileged insight into that time, including social conditions and prevalent ideas. Literature allows us to penetrate into the collective mentality or psychology of a society or a specific segment thereof. It allows us to understand the worldview of the people who produced it in a way that is far more concrete and profound than history books permit. According to some scholars, nations in formation need to create an identity for themselves (Moignet 7).

For some, this need is the propelling force at the origin of epic poems, works which glorify historical or fictitious characters and their actions. These protagonists of these epics embody the ideals and values of a people. In the cases when epics deal with historical figures, the qualities of the protagonists are exaggerated and historical events are distorted. While it is possible that not all epic poems respond to a people’s need to create an identity for itself, this certainly seem to be the case for the Song of Roland, the Poem of the Cid, and the Rawdah Khani, that combination of sermons, poems, Qur’anic verses, and drama which depict the events leading to the tragic death of Imam Husayn. If we examine these three works, we note numerous parallel elements as well as some marked differences. In the following pages, we propose to present a comparative analysis of these different elements accompanied by a socio-cultural commentary.

Structure

The French Song of Roland, the Spanish Poem of the Cid, and the Arabic-Persian Rawdah Khani all share a similar structure and development. All three medieval works revolve around the final period in the life of the protagonist. The first part of these works is devoted, more or less, to the exile of the main character. In the case of the Song of Roland, the protagonist is located in Spain, far from his sweet France, where he is a participant in the military expeditions of Charlemagne. Hence, the case of Roland does not seem to be an involuntary exile. As regards the Poem of the Cid and the Rawdah Khani, the protagonists are exiled as a result of a grave injustice. The Cid, Ruy Díaz de Vivar, is the victim of a plot. To be precise, the enemies of the Cid convinced King Alfonso VI that he had acted against the interests of His Majesty (PMC: Chapter 3). The Cid is thus obliged, under threat of torture and death, to leave Christian lands (PMC: Chapter 4).

Imam Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad and the Third Shi‘ite Imam, found himself in a similar situation. He had to leave Medina, and after that Mecca, because the Caliph Yazid had decided to have him assassinated (Tabatabai 158). The second part of these works is, more or less, dedicated to combat. In the Poem of the Cid, the Cid participates in numerous battles. In the Song of Roland, and the Rawdah Khani, however, the protagonists participate in but a single battle: Roland, in the battle of Roncevaux, and Imam Husayn in the battle of Karbala, both of which led to their deaths. The third part of these three epic works is devoted to the quest for justice. In the Song of Roland, Charlemagne and his army invade Spain in order to avenge the attack suffered by their rear-guard. Although the Cid does not die in battle, he was compelled to recover his lost honor as a result of the torture and humiliation that his two young daughters had suffered at the hands of his treacherous sons-in-law. As part of his quest for justice, the Cid brings the Infantes or Princes of Carrión to court in order to face the King. In the Rawdah Khani, it is the members of the family of Imam Husayn, especially his sister Zaynab, who confronted the Caliph, not in order to receive justice at his hands, but to publicly denounce him for the unspeakable atrocities he had committed.

Out of the three works, the structure and plot of the Poem of the Cid and the Rawdah Khani resemble each other the most. According to Francisco Marcos Marin, the Poem of the Cid shares many similarities with Arab literary works (19-20, 36, 45-46). One such aspect is the journey as the main thread of the plot (45). In many regards, the plot of the Poem of the Cid resembles the structure of the Sirat ‘Antar or The Life of ‘Antar (44-46). While the Song of Roland contains some Arab elements, the Poem of the Cid presents a perfect case of Arabic influence (20, 45). If the structure and plots of these works contain many similar elements, they also share numerous events.

The Events

A common element, found in both the Poem of the Cid and the Rawdah Khani, is the departure of the protagonist, something which is absent from the Song of Roland. The first thing that the Cid and Imam Husayn do before leaving is to inform their family members of their plight. After having explained to his family and friends that the king had expelled him, giving him nine days to leave Christian territory, the Cid tells them: “Friends! I would like to know which one of you will accompany me. God will be pleased with those who follow me. As for those who stay behind, I wish to leave them on good terms” (verses 0.4-0.5). Alvar Fañez responds:

We are with you, O Cid! We shall accompany you through waste land and villages. We will never abandon you so long as you are alive and healthy. We will accompany you with our mules and our horses and we will make good use of them. We will bring with us our goods and our clothing. We will remain loyal to you as your friends and vassals. (verses 0.5)

Finally, when the Cid left, we read that: “His eyes were crying abundantly. He turned his head, and continued to watch them. He sighed, as he was very worried, and said confidently, ‘O Father who art in Heaven. I thank you for all of your blessings. This is the results of the plot of my enemies’” (verses 1-9). Later, we read the declaration made by Martín Antolínez, who said:

O hero! Your birth was auspicious. We shall leave tomorrow after you have slept. I will be condemned for having served you. I will incur the wrath of King Alfonso. If I escape with you safe and sound, sooner or later, the King will want me as a friend. If not, I could not care less about what I leave behind. (verses 71-77)

All of these elements resemble those found in the Rawdah Khani but with some variations. Prior to leaving Medina, Imam Husayn did not invite anyone to follow him. He was simply going to be accompanied by a divinely preordained group of family members, friends, and companions, which had been mentioned to him by his grandfather, the Prophet Muhammad. Imam Husayn had been approached by a delegation from the Shi‘ites of Medina who wanted to persuade him not to leave their city. Imam Husayn explained to them that he had no other option but to leave. As the Caliph Yazid had declared, he would behead Imam Husayn if he refused to pay allegiance to him. There is, indeed, a farewell in the Rawdah Khani, but in a different context than that which is found in the Poem of the Cid. Another similarity between both works can be found in the prayers they recite prior to setting off on their journeys. While the Cid recited a personal prayer, Imam Husayn recited the Qur’anic verse, “Deliver me from the evil doers” (28:21), prior to leaving Medina.

During the four and a half months that Imam Husayn spent in Medina, he made numerous speeches in order to “stir up public opinion” and in order to “incite the Muslims to revolt” (Dar al-Towhid 66). It is in this context that we find declarations which resemble those made by Alvar Fañez and Martín Antolínez, including, “By God! You will not engage in battle without us also engaging in battle. And you will not face a difficulty which we will not face ourselves. By God! We will defend you with our swords and we will protect you with our lives.” The Companions of Imam Husayn also asserted, “We will not remain indifferent if you are angry, nor will we remain behind if you leave. The matter is in your hands. Call us, and we will respond. Order us, and we will obey you” (al-Towhid 65).

Another highly importance theme found in the Song of Roland, the Poem of the Cid, and the Rawdah Khani is that of betrayal. Roland is the victim of a plot orchestrated by his father-in-law Ganelon. The Cid is betrayed by his enemies. And Imam Husayn is betrayed by the Iraqis who had promised to mobilize their troops to defend him, something they failed to do, abandoning his small band of 90 people, including women and children, to face an imperial army composed of 30,000 soldiers (Tabatabai 160; Lalljee 108).

The French, Spanish, and Arabic epics contain many other similarities. Both the Song of Roland and the Rawdah Khani contain a scene in which a companion of the protagonist demonstrates a great deal of courage, love, and devotion for his liege. In the Song of Roland, we find the scene of archbishop Turpin who does everything possible in order to bring water to Roland. As we read,

When the Archbishop beheld him swoon, Rollant,

Never before such bitter grief he’d had;

Stretching his hand, he took that olifant.

Through Rencesvals a little river ran;

He would go there, fetch water for Rollant.

Went step by step, to stumble soon began,

So feeble he is, no further fare he can,

For too much blood he’s lost, and no strength has;

Ere he has crossed an acre of the land,

His heart grows faint, he falls down forwards and

Death comes to him with very cruel pangs. (verses 2222-2232)

This scene greatly resembles the behavior of ‘Abbas, the brother of Imam Husayn. As we read in the Rawdah Khani,

The cries for water raised by the children in Imam Husayn’s camp on the day of ‘Ashura deeply grieved ‘Abbas. After taking permission from Imam Husayn, he took the empty water-bag of Sakina, the daughter of Imam Husayn, and rode off towards the river Euphrates. Cutting through the rank and file of Yazid’s army, he rushed to the bank of the river, filled the bag with water, and started towards the camp. Yazid’s army encircled the gallant ‘Abbas. He kept the water-bag in one hand, and started fighting with the other. When both his hands were severed, he gripped the water-bag strap with his teeth. The severe blow from a mace on his head shook him badly. He fell from his horse, and called onto Imam Husayn. Imam Husayn reached him with great difficulty, and placed his head on his lap. ‘Abbas then opened his eyes to cast a look on the Holy Imam’s face, and breathed his last. (Lalljee 143)

In the French, Spanish, and Arabic epics, we find a group of soldiers who, at a given moment, find themselves in a position of weakness when faced by superior forces. In the Song of Roland and the Rawdah Khani, the protagonists embraced inevitable death. The three epics are action packed and describe battles full of fantastic elements. There are instances in which a single person kills hundreds of enemy soldiers in combat. The Song of Roland offers a reference to Archbishop Turpin who kills four hundred “pagans” with his sword (161). In the Poem of the Cid, we have numerous examples of Shi‘ites who kill a large number of enemies before dying. There is the case of ‘Ali Akbar, the son of Imam Husayn, who killed one hundred soldiers before succumbing to his wounds.

In each of these epics, the minority party demonstrates a great deal of courage. In the Song of Roland and the Rawdah Khani, soldiers enter battle one by one in order to combat the enemy. The protagonist is always the last one to enter battle. At the beginning of the battle, Roland had an army of 20,000 Franks. Soon, they were reduced to 60 souls. It is for this reason that the remaining soldiers entered battle one by one, an element which creates a great deal of suspense. Interestingly, the final group of Franks to face their enemies was approximately the same size as the number of Shi‘ite soldiers who entered battle, one after another, in order to defend Imam Husayn.

Both the Song of Roland and the Rawdah Khani mention miraculous events which take place after their respective heroes are killed. Regarding the death of Roland, we read,

His right-hand glove, to God he offers it

Saint Gabriel from’s hand hath taken it.

Over his arm his head bows down and slips,

He joins his hands: and so is life finish’d.

God sent him down His angel cherubin,

And Saint Michael, we worship in peril;

And by their side Saint Gabriel alit;

So the count’s soul they bare to Paradis. (verses 2389-2396)

According to the Rawdah Khani, the head of Imam Husayn started to glorify God after it had been cut off and raised on the point of a lance, crying Allahu Akbar or “Allah is the Greatest” (Lalljee 109). Although no similar events are related in the Poem of the Cid, Spanish oral tradition has passed down a legend which asserts that, after his death, the Cid appeared riding on a white horse.

Another parallel element between the three epics relates to the plight of the women and family members of the protagonists. In the Chanson de Roland, we have the case of the young Aude who died upon learning of the death of her husband (v. 3723). In the Rawdah Khani, the wives and the survivors from Imam Husayn’s family are taken captive, subjected to public humiliation, as well as imprisoned and tortured by Caliph Yazid’s forces of repression (Zakir chapters 9-12; Dar al-Tawhid 112-114; Tabatabai 160). Rather than take place after the death of Roland, similar events take place at the end of his life. In the Poem of the Cid, the wife and daughters of the main character spend several years as virtual prisoners under house arrest in the monastery of Cardeña (verses 330-365; 1276).

A final event which is shared by the Spanish, French, and Arabic epics revolves around the veneration of the corpses of the deceased. The bodies of Roland, Olivier, and Turpin were buried in Blaye (verses 3689-3691). The remains of Imam Husayn and his Shi‘ites were buried in the plain of Karbala. The body of the Cid was buried in Valencia until the city was re-conquered by the Almoravids in 1102 after which Doña Jimena had her husband’s remains relocated to the monastery of Cardeña in Burgos (Marín 173). Blaye, Karbala, and Burgos all became sacred pilgrimage sites. It is also worth mentioning that the painful separation between Roland and Olivier, when the later dies, greatly resembles the painful farewell between Imam Husayn and his son ‘Ali Akbar. It is therefore evident that, from the point of view of the events, there is a great deal of similarity between the Song of Roland, the Poem of the Cid, and the Rawdah Khani. Such is the case when we closely compare the characters from these three famous epic poems.

The Characters

The Cid, Ruy Díaz, was only an infanzón, a low-ranking member of the nobility (Marín 46). Roland, on the other hand, “was the product of an incestuous relationship between Charlemagne and his sister” (Moignet 45). In an Islamic context, it is difficult to speak about “social classes” and “nobility” as Islam does not judge people on the basis of their genealogy, but rather, on the basis of their behavior (Qur’an 49:13). What we can say, however, is that Imam Husayn was a Sayyid, namely, a direct descendant of the Prophet. As such, he was a member of the most prestigious family. The three protagonists from the three epics were all married: the Cid with Doña Jimena, Roland with Aude, and Imam Husayn with several wives. As one can imagine, these main characters were all handsome, strong, and brave. Imam Husayn had a white horse and the Cid, according to a legend, was seen riding on a white horse after his death. Since Roland rode many different horses at the battle of Roncevaux, we cannot speak of a specific color of steed in his case. In the case of the Cid and Husayn, however, the white colored horses they ride represent the spiritual purity of their riders. In each of the three epics, horses and swords have names. The names of the swords in the Poem of the Cid and the Song of Roland are all of Arabic origin (Marín 20). Both the Cid and Imam Husayn had beards. In fact, the Cid had sworn that he would not shave his beard until he had recovered his honor. For the Cid, his beard was the symbol of his honor. For Shi‘ite Muslims, the beard is a religious obligation, a spiritual symbol, a type of veil, and the emblem of masculinity, virility, and honor. While it appears that Roland did not have a beard, there are numerous allusions to the long white beard of Charlemagne who had lived for so long (verses 117; 1843; 3712). It is interesting to note that Imam Husayn’s beard became completely white as a result of the pain and grief he suffered at Karbala (Zakir 65). The Cid, Roland, and Imam Husayn were all outstanding knights and horsemen.

The three protagonists are presented as perfect men possessing every quality imaginable. As we read in the Song of Roland, “The count Rollanz has never loved cowards / Nor arrogant, nor men of evil heart, / Nor chevalier that was not good vassal” (verses 2134-2136). According to the Poem of the Cid, Ruy Díaz de Vivar was generous, noble, intelligent, faithful, and religious, not to mention his many other qualities. It is important to note that the historical Cid was a relatively tolerant man who did not appear to have any prejudices. In fact, he had many Muslim friends, and was as willing to serve Muslim kings as he was willing to serve Christian ones. As regards Imam Husayn, it suffices to mention that Shi‘ite consider him to be ma‘sum or “infallible.” As such, he is a perfect example, a person who has reached “the highest degree of human perfection” thanks to the grace of God (Tabatabai 173). Charlemagne, on the other hand, is emperor “Deo gratia.”

The three protagonists all have a religious dimension. The religious aspect of Roland manifests itself in the person of Archbishop Turpin who recites several prayers throughout the poem (verses 1139-1140). Roland, himself, makes many prayers throughout the work (verses 1854-1856; 2196-2197; 2233-2245; 2252-2258; 2269-2272). As for the Cid, he seems to be a far more religious person than Roland, praying before and after all major actions. His religious aspect is also manifested in the presence of Archbishop Jerónimo, who had been selected by the Cid himself. As for Imam Husayn, he was the head of the Shi‘ite faith, and the very embodiment of Islam. Neither the Cid nor Roland can compare to the religiousness of Imam Husayn who used to pray entire nights. Of particular interest are the promises of Paradise made in the Song of Roland and the Rawdah Khani to those who die in battle. In his sermon prior to battle, archbishop Turpin declared, “So, though you die, blest martyrs shall you live, / Thrones you shall win in the great Paradis” (verses 1134-1135). Imam Husayn made a similar declaration to his Shi‘ites, saying, “Death is nothing but a bridge which you must cross after facing trials and tribulations so as to reach Heaven and its joys. Which of you would not prefer to leave this worldly prison and go to the lofty palaces of Paradise?” (Lalljee 108).

Religion plays a very important role in the Spanish, French, and Arabic epics, since each group wishes to justify its actions by showing that God is on their side. In the Song of Roland, the religious aspect is manifested in the dreams of Charlemagne, the fact that God stops the sun to permit the Franks to massacre the Muslims (verses 2458-2559), and the fact that the Angel Gabriel communicates directly with him (verses 3994-3998). In the Poem of the Cid, we find this divine favor in the dream of Ruy Díaz in which the Angel Gabriel communicated directly with him (verses 213-225). As regards Imam Husayn, he benefited from perpetual divine communication and use to communicate with the angels. We should also mention that the Angel Gabriel plays a major role in the Islamic religion. As opposed to Roland and the Cid, who are not monks, priests, bishops or popes, Husayn was the Imam of Shi‘ite Islam, the Successor of the Prophet, and the living highest authority of the Islamic faith.

Each of the three protagonists, Roland, the Cid, and Imam Husayn, has a clear identity. In the case of Roland, his identity is more nationalistic than religious. As Menéndez Pidal has demonstrated, the Song of Roland does not manifest the spirit of the Crusades (Moignet 101). It is more a nationalistic and expansionist work (17). The war cry of the Franks is “Mon joie” (verses 1182, 1234, 1260, 1350, 1378, 2151, etc.) which is nationalistic as opposed to religious. The references to religion are secondary. Roland fights for his honor, for Charlemagne, for his sweet France, and only after for religion. In reality, Roland is the manifestation of French imperialistic ambitions. If Roland has a French identity, then the Cid has a Spanish identity. He wishes to see a united Christian Spain. He identifies with Spain and with the Re-Conquest. He fights for his honor, rather than for his religion. The case of Imam Husayn is different in many regards. Imam Husayn fought for God, Islam, the truth, and the oppressed (al-Towhid 144-145). His struggle was devoid of materialistic motivation. As such, Imam Husayn was a religious martyr in contrast to the Cid and Roland who were national heroes.

Roland, the Cid, and Imam Husayn fought against individuals they considered to be “infidels.” It is worthwhile to examine the vision of their enemies and their behavior towards them. The enemies of Roland were the Muslims whom the Franks called Saracens and “pagans,” a pejorative label which is repeated a shocking amount of times (verses 24, 994, 1015, 1049, 1057, 1166, 1187, 1221, 1265, 1348, 1397, 1439, 1582, 1911, 1940, 2115, 2131, 2142, 2146, 2161, 2164, etc.). According to the Song of Roland, even the Muslims call themselves “pagans” (verses 1543, 1578). In the eyes of the Franks, the Muslims are polytheists. The religion they follow sounds more like Greco-Roman paganism than Islam, a radically monotheistic religion. According to the Song of Roland, Muslims do not love God. They serve Mahomet and invoke Apollin (verses 7-8). They follow a book which contains the law of Mahomet and Tervagant (verses 610-611). The Muslims have strange names such as Corsablix (verse 1235), Chernuble (verse 1325), Malsaron (verse 1353), Turgis and Esturgos (verse 1358), Justin de Val Feree (verse 1370), Timozel (verse 1382), Siglorel (verse 1390), Marsile (verses 610, 1449), Abisme (verse 1470), Climborins (verse 1528), Alphaien (verse 1554), Escababi (verse 155), Valdabrun ( verse 1562), Grandonie (verse 1636), Faldrun de Pui (verse 1871), Jurafleu le Blond (verse 1964), Marganice (verse 1914), Garmalie (verse 1915), and so forth. While some of these names can be traced back etymologically to the Orient, none of them are Muslim names. In fact, many of them are French. These names strike use by their “bizarre nature” (12). In reality, many of them are not real names, but rather “sardonic nicknames” (12). There is clear effort on the part of the author of the Song of Roland to present Muslims in a diabolical light. The description of Abisme, the Saracen, clearly demonstrates this,

More felon none was in that company;

Cankered with guile and every felony,

He fears not God, the Son of Saint Mary;

Black is that man as molten pitch that seethes;

Better he loves murder and treachery

Than to have all the gold of Galicie;

Never has man beheld him sport for glee. (verses 1632-1638)

The racism contained in verse 1474 is especially striking. There are several other racist references in the work. Ethiopia, which, in the European context of the Middle Ages, applied to black Africa, is described as a “cursed land” (verse 1916) inhabited by the black race, a “cursed race” (verse 1933). According to the Song of Roland, black men are “Broad in the nose they are and flat in the ear” (verse 1918). They are “more black than ink is on the pen / With no part white, only their teeth except” (verse 1933-1934). The hatred of the French is not only racial, it is also religious. Their philosophy is summarized in the following terms: “Pagans are wrong: Christians are right” (verse 1015). Faced with such “infidels,” the French have no other choice but to ravage their land, seize their castles, lay siege to their cities (verse 703-705), take as much booty as possible (verse 1167), and kill as many Muslims as possible, with the exception of those who convert to Christianity (33). In the Poem of the Cid, the Muslims are called moros, a pejorative term equivalent to the American “niggers.” Rather than invoke Allah, the Muslims in the Spanish epic invoke Mahoma or Muhammad (verse 730).

It would appear that the authors of the Song of Roland and the Poem of the Cid were completely ignorant regarding the Islamic faith and had never been in the presence of Muslims. It is common knowledge that the Muslim war cry is Allahu Akbar or “God is the Greatest.” It is also quite possible that the image of Muslims as “polytheists” and “infidels” was not the simple product of ignorance, but part and parcel of anti-Islamic propaganda. Besides such ridiculous elements, the Poem of the Cid expresses much less prejudice than the Song of Roland. This may be explained by the fact that the Spanish Christians had more contact with Muslims than the French did. Nonetheless, the behavior of the Cid and Roland towards Muslims was the same: they must be massacred or condemned to slavery. Although the Poem of the Cid does not provide great details regarding the massacre of Muslims, the following historical citation exemplifies the actions of the historical Cid,

He pursued them until Atienza, Sigüenza, Hita, and Guadalajara, all the way to Toledo, murdering, robbing, burning, destroying, and taking any captives he could, until nothing remained. Without counting the dead, he brought back eleven thousand captives, both men and women. (Marín 0.2)

The enemies of Imam Husayn were also infidels, hypocrites, and apostates, responsible for having committed terrible injustices and repugnant atrocities. Nonetheless, Imam Husayn was generous towards his enemies and encouraged them to repent and atone. He even saved the life of a battalion of Yazid’s army which found itself without water in the middle of the desert (Zakir 17). As a result of his nobility of character, many enemy soldiers joined the ranks of Imam Husayn (18-22). Furthermore, Imam Husayn had prohibited his Shi‘ites from cursing their enemies, something which differs greatly from the behavior of Roland (verse 1968). The struggle of Imam Husayn was not imperialistic like that of Roland nor was it one of Re-Conquest like that of the Cid. Imam Husayn never committed any injustice or atrocity. He always remained faithful to Islam’s theory of “just war.” He never lowered himself to the level of his enemies who used to rape women, kill children, and mutilate cadavers (al-Tawhid 112-140; Zakir chapters 9-11). It is here that we find a radical difference between the Rawdah Khani and the two European epics. The Rawdah Khani does not exalt violence. On the contrary, the protagonist, who is in a position of weakness, is the victim of violence. The protagonists in the Song of Roland and the Poem of the Cid are responsible for veritable acts of genocide.

The author of the Song of Roland glorifies violence (verse 1326-1336) as well as the massacre of hundreds of thousands of Muslims (verses 1438-1440). He seems to rejoice in the suffering which the French inflict (verses 1664-1666). He glorifies the amputation of limbs (verses 1653-1690), as well as the mutilation of Muslims (1646, 1956, 1871). The same phenomenon is found in the Poem of the Cid (verses 744-751, 2403-2406). The moral of the Rawdah Khani stresses the importance of struggling against oppression as opposed to the Poem of the Cid and the Song of Roland which encourage and glorify wars of aggression and ethnic “cleansing.” The implications of these three epic poems have been profound throughout history and continue to influence cultures and countries to this day. Inspired by the Rawdah Khani, the Shi‘ites have developed a type of martyr complex. They are always ready to fight against tyrants and always side with the oppressed. This martyr complex manifested itself dramatically during the Islamic Revolution of Iran in which the lessons from the Rawdah Khani were put into practice. We also see that the lessons of the Poem of the Cid and the Song of Roland have been put into practice by the French and the Spaniards. The spirit of the Poem of the Cid and the Chanson de Roland inspired the French and the Spaniards to conquer and colonize a large part of the world, engaging in veritable genocides. The impact that these three epics have had on their respective peoples cannot be doubted. The only question that remains regards their historical validity.

Origin and Historical Validity

The origin of the Rawdah Khani dates back to the event of Karbala and Imam Husayn in the year 680 CE. The person responsible for its origin is Zaynab, the sister of Imam Husayn, who was one of the witnesses to the terrible tragedy. Shortly after she was freed, she started to organize majalis or religious gatherings in order to commemorate and lament the martyrdom of Imam Husayn. This religious manifestation was a combination of sermons, poems, Qur’anic verses, and drama, relating to the tragedy of Karbala. The Rawdah Khani was written down immediately after the events and has been passed down from generation to generation until our time. The Rawdah Khani is not limited to a single text. Like the Yugoslavian and French chansons de geste or “songs of heroic deeds,” it consists of numerous collections of different versions. The Rawdah Khani is not limited to the lamentations of Zaynab as the nine Imams who followed Husayn enriched it with their sermons and wisdom. Furthermore, the greatest poets throughout the centuries have composed poems about the martyrdom of Imam Husayn. The Rawdah Khani is thus a combination of ancient and more modern elements, containing a fascinating literary richness. The work has even overcome linguistic barriers. The Rawdah Khani exists in a highly sophisticated form in Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. Some experts consider the Rawdah Khani to be the most successful, and long-lasting, literary and dramatic work of all times (Jaffar 9). It is very much a living literary work and the enduring expression of religious and cultural community.

As regards the Poem of the Cid, and the Song of Roland, their historical validity is much lesser, something which can be seen by the numerous fictitious events and characters they contain. According to Francisco Marcos Marín, the Spanish epic seems far more primitive than the French epic despite the fact that it is more historical and realistic. Marin, though, does not believe that Arabic works had a direct thematic influence on European works, despite the fact that he has demonstrated the existence of numerous Arab elements in the Poem of the Cid, and a few in the Song of Roland. Evidently, we do not entirely agree with him. We must, first and foremost, understand the medieval European attitude towards literature. Medieval literary works were not original creations. The greatness of a literary work was not in its conception but in its imitation of a classic work. We must not forget that that even the Greek and Latin classics were re-introduced into Europe through their Arabic translations. It is not unreasonable to believe that a classic like the Rawdah Khani, or a work inspired by it, could have exerted a considerable influence on the creation of the Spanish and French epics. This is only a possibility, of course. We must recall that human beings have similar psychological dispositions and that their imagination functions in a similar fashion.

Conclusion

As we have demonstrated, there are many similarities between the Song of Roland, the Poem of the Cid, and the Rawdah Khani. These similarities are found in the structure of these works, the events they describe, as well as their protagonists. Considering that it is the oldest of the three works, it seems that the Rawdah Khani may have influenced the Spanish and French epic poems directly or indirectly. This study does not pretend to present the “last word” regarding the thematic influence of Islamic literature on European literature. Our sole purpose is to point out certain interesting elements in the hopes that it will encourage deeper studies on the subject by future scholars.

Works Cited

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Jaffar, Muhsin. “Muharram: Its Significance and Importance.” Al-Hagg 4.2 (April-September 1993).

Lalljee, Youssuf N. Know your Islam. Elmhurst, NY: Tahrike Tarsile Qur’an, 1986.

Marín, Francisco Marcos, Ed. Cantar de mío Cid. Madrid: Alhambra, 1985.

Moignet, Gerard. Ed. La Chanson de Roland. Paris: Bordas, 1989.

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• 1. This article was originally published in French as “Étude comparée de la Chanson de Roland, le Poema de mío Cid et le Rawdah-Khani” in Le Message de l’Islam 115 (Juin 1994), 32-39. It is published here for the first time in English. The original French version included the following preface, which we provide here in English translation:

  One of our readers has forwarded us the following article in which he compares the song of Roland and the poem of the Cid, both of which are epic poems, with the elegies regarding the martyrdom of Imam Husayn, blessed be he and his companions. Naturally, the elegies do not exaggerate events as national epics do. They content themselves with faithfully transmitting the religious epic in order to revive the religion of God. Imam Husayn, may he be blessed, the grandson of the Prophet of Islam, refused to pay allegiance to Yazid, the corrupt ruler of the period. As a result of his martyrdom, he prevented the decline of Islam. Had he paid allegiance to Yazid, the true teachings of Islam may have been forgotten, replaced by innovations such as the consumption of alcohol, adultery, and so forth, among Muslims. In short, they would resemble the Christians and the Jews who no longer follow the teachings of their holy books. By his martyrdom, Imam Husayn, blessed be he, reestablished authentic Islam and it is thanks to him that Muslims continue to conform to the laws of their religion.