Jihad in Islam1

Islam is a religion of peace, love, justice, and equality. For a series of internal and external reasons, the religion has unfortunately been depicted in a negative light. As a result, many people consider Islam to be a religion of hatred and violence, a stereotype spread by many sources which portray Muslims as bloodthirsty imperialists or terrorists. While many people accept these stereotypes uncritically, others do not. Still, there are many well-intentioned people who remain uncertain as to the true nature of Islam. What exactly is this thing called jihad? What are the guidelines found in the sacred text of the Muslims? What are the Prophet Muhammad’s teachings regarding jihad and its implications? And how have these rules been applied and respected from a historical perspective?

First of all, it is essential to understand that Islam is a complete way of life. Thus, Islam could not have neglected commenting upon war. As can be expected, the rules and guidelines regarding war or jihad are clearly iterated in the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet. Historically, this guidance has been implemented by all true Muslims. Before we go any further, however, it is necessary to accurately define the meaning of the word jihad as it is often the subject of misunderstanding.

Jihad is an Arabic word which literally means “to struggle.” It refers to a general struggle against all forms of evil. The term encompasses many different levels and dimensions. Jihad, for example, is not only physical: it is spiritual as well. On returning from a battle, the Prophet Muhammad mentioned to his Companions that they were leaving the lesser jihad and now had to concentrate on the greater jihad. He referred to the physical jihad as the lesser jihad and to the jihad against one’s own soul or inner-self as the greater jihad. The reason that the jihad against one’s own soul was greater was because it was perpetual whereas the physical jihad was temporal.

Although jihad is often wrongly depicted as “holy war,” the Prophet used the term to describe a special type of socio-spiritual struggle. As the Messenger of Allah said, “The best jihad is that a person speaks the truth before a tyrant ruler” (Abu Dawud). He also urged Muslims to “Fight against those who associate with Allah with your money, with your lives, and with your tongues” (Ahmad). As interesting as the spiritual struggle may be, we shall concentrate solely on the physical jihad in this study, examining its rules and regulations. In order to do so, we must examine the primary source of law in Islam: the Holy Qur’an.

The Holy Qur’an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad over a period of twenty-three years. The verses that came down from Allah related to many events that the Muslims were experiencing. Many practices of Islam were revealed in stages. These included the prohibition of usury and alcohol as well as the commands regarding jihad. In Mecca, the Muslims were a small minority. They were persecuted, abused, tortured, and murdered by the polytheists merely because of their belief that there was no god but Allah. In their minority state, the Muslims were prevented from fighting, a logical strategy considering the fact that they could easily have been exterminated. During these ten difficult years, the Prophet devoted himself to peacefully propagating Islam without the use of force whatsoever. In fact, when attacked by the infidels, the Muslims adopted passive resistance and non-violence. Due to the severe persecution they faced, many of the Prophet’s earliest Companions were forced into exile in Abyssinia. Rather than fight the polytheists in Mecca, the majority of the Muslims joined the Prophet and migrated to Medina as religious refugees.

During the early days in Mecca, the Muslims were forbidden to fight. As Almighty Allah revealed in the Holy Qur’an:

“control your hands, observe the prayer, and pay the poor-due” (4:77).

Later on, the Muslims were permitted to fight under certain circumstances:

“To those against whom war is made, permission is given to fight for they are wronged; and verily, Allah is the Most Powerful for their aid.” (22:39).

“They are those who have been expelled from their homes in defiance of right, for no cause except that they said: ‘Our Lord is Allah’” (22:40).

Unlike fascism, which advocates a state of perpetual war, Islam advocates a state of perpetual peace, resorting to non-violence, passive resistance, and exile when placed in a position of weakness, and resorting solely to self-defense when placed in a position of power.

Unlike other ideologies, the Islamic attitude towards war is realistic. So long as there is oppression, war will be necessary. So long as there is an oppressor, exploiter, and persecutor, there will have to be a liberator. As far as the Qur’an is concerned, Muslims were designated as the protectors of their own community as well as the protectors of the communities of Jews and Christians which lived among them. As Almighty Allah explains in the Holy Qur’an,

“Did not Allah check one set of people by means of another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of Allah is commemorated in abundant measure” (22:40).

It should be stressed, however, that Islam forbids coercing people from their religions. As Almighty Allah commands in the Holy Qur’an:

“Let there be no compulsion in religion” (2:256).

Forcing non-Muslims to convert to Islam is as illicit as obliging Muslims to practice Islam by force.

As far as the Qur’an commands, the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims should be based on mutual respect, tolerance, and a deep-seating appreciation for diversity. As Almighty Allah instructed the Prophet to preach:

“O ye that reject faith!” (109:1).

“I worship not that which ye worship” (109:2).

“nor will ye worship that which I worship.” (109:3).

“And I will not worship that which ye have been wont to worship” (109:4).

“nor will ye worship that which I worship.” (109:5).

“To you be your Way and to me mine” (109:6).

The Prophet was told by Allah to:

“Invite all to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and most gracious” (16:125).

As Almighty Allah instructs:

“Dispute not with the People of the Book except with means better (than mere disputation), unless it be with those of them who inflict wrong (and injury). But say, ‘We believe in the Revelation which has come down to us, and in that which came down to you; and our God and your God is One; and it is to Him we bow (in Islam)’” (29:46).

Despite the claims of some Western historians, jihad is not imperialistic in nature. The goal of jihad is to get rid of oppression and open new lands to the message of Islam by preaching, and not by force. The believers are described in the Qur’an as follows:

“They are those who, if we establish them in the land, establish prayer and give regular charity, and enjoin the right, and forbid the wrong” (22:41).

As they were under attack by their enemies, Muslims were allowed to fight those who attacked them:

“Fight, in the cause of Allah, those who fight you” (2:190).

Finally, it was revealed to fight against all of the unbelievers who were at war with them:

“fight the pagans all together as they fight you all together” (9:29).

And again,

“Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden that which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the compensation with willing submission” (9:29).

Muslims, of course, were forbidden from commencing hostilities or waging wars of aggression. As the Qur’an explains,

“Fight, in the cause of Allah, those who fight you, and do not transgress limits: for Allah loves not transgressors.” (2:190).

“And slay them wherever you catch them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out; for tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter; but fight them not in the Sacred Mosque unless they (first) fight you there; but if they fight you, slay them. Such is the reward of those who suppress faith!” (2:191).

In terms of war, if the enemy desires a ceasefire, the Muslims are urged to comply. As the Qur’an advises,

“If they cease, Allah is forgiving, Most Merciful.” (2:192).

“And fight them on until there is no more persecution or oppression, and there prevails justice and faith in Allah; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression” (2:193).

Rather than repressing people, Muslims are urged to fight for the freedom of the oppressed:

“And why should ye not fight in the cause of Allah and those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? Men, women, and children, whose cry is ‘Our Lord! Rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Thee one who will protect; and raise for us from Thee one who will help’” (4:75).

As Almighty Allah explains,

“Those who believe fight in the cause of Allah, and those who reject faith fight in the cause of evil; so fight ye against the friends of Satan: feeble indeed is the cunning of Satan” (4:76).

As convincing as these arguments may be, many people, for one reason or another, may still oppose such a just concept of war. The Qur’an is lucid on the issue. War is a reality of life. Tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter. A Muslim prefers death to dishonor. A Muslim prefers death to slavery and subjugation. A Muslim prefers death to oppression and exploitation. Since humans are limited beings, they do not necessarily know what is best for them unless they are guided. As far as Muslims are concerned, the Qur’an is their guide and Allah knows best. As Almighty Allah explains,

“Fighting is prescribed for you, and you dislike it. But it is possible that you dislike a thing which is good for you, and that you love a thing which is bad for you. Allah knows, and you know not” (2:216).

As we have explained, jihad was established with the creation of the Islamic state in Medina. Although it is primarily a defense form of warfare used to defend Muslims from foreign aggression, jihad can also be employed to liberate the oppressed and establish justice. Thus, the nature of jihad, its reasons and purposes are clear. We shall now examine the details regarding the actual waging of jihad in Islam as expounded upon in the authentic traditions of the Prophet Muhammad.

If the Qur’an is the primary source of law in Islam, the Sunnah is the second. We shall now examine some authentic traditions in order to demonstrate the high level of justice and mercy found in the guidelines regarding jihad. It will be made manifest that Islam is not the most barbaric of religions, but the most humane. We shall see that the concepts of discrimination and proportionality are more highly developed in Islam than in any other religion.

The concept of jihad is regulated by the principles of love and mercy. Islam makes a clear distinction between the combatant and the non-combatant. The principle of discrimination is expounded by the Prophet in the following terms, “Do not kill any old person, any child or any woman. Do not kill monks in the monasteries, and do not kill people sitting in places of worship” (Abu Dawud). Prior to dispatching his troops to confront the Byzantines who threatened to invade the Islamic State, the Prophet warned them: “In avenging the injuries afflicted upon us; violate not the harmless inmates of domestic seclusion; spare the weakness of the females; injure not the infants at the breast or those who are ill in bed. Refrain from demolishing the houses of the unresisting inhabitants; destroy not the means of their sustenance or their fruit trees, and touch not the palm.”

As a defender of human dignity, the Prophet Muhammad insisted that individuals who were convicted to death for committing crimes against humanity should not be tied up in order to be executed. As an opponent of physical abuse of all sorts, he forbade the use of torture and any cruel or unusual punishment. As the Messenger of Allah said, “The punishment by fire does not behoove anyone except the Master of the Fire (God Himself)” (Abu Dawud). He taught that the corpses of the dead must be treated with respect and returned to their families for proper burial. He expressly prohibited the mutilation of dead bodies during a period of time when it was the common practice of the polytheists to disrespect corpses. In fact, the Arab polytheists were famous for cutting off the noses and ears of the Muslim martyrs which they would thread together and wear as trophies of war. The Prophet’s paternal uncle, Hamza, had his nose amputated and his liver removed and chewed by Hind, the wife of Abu Sufyan, and mother of Mu‘awiyah. Regardless of the horrors that the Muslims faced, they were forbidden to lower themselves to the level of their enemies. Simply because the enemy commits atrocities does not mean that Muslims can commit them as well.

The mercy of Islam is made manifest in its law regarding the obligation to respect treaties. As was mentioned earlier, Muslims are encouraged to make peace treaties with non-Muslims. The terms of these treaties are absolutely binding. Even if an enemy of Islam were to take refuge in a territory under treaty, Muslims are forbidden to break the treaty. One such treaty was signed between the Prophet and the monks of St. Catherine near Mount Sinai during the 6th year of the hijrah. The treaty is a perfect example of how Muslims should interact with non-Muslims. Following divine injunctions, the Prophet established the following charter with the Christians:

1) The Christian clergymen are not to be unfairly taxed.

2) No bishop is to be driven out of his diocese or bishopric.

3) No Christian should be forced to change his religion.

4) No monk is to be expelled from his monastery.

5) No pilgrim is to be detained from his pilgrimage.

6) No churches are to be pulled down for the sake of building a mosque or even a Muslim’s home.

7) Christian women who marry Muslims are to enjoy their own faith.

8) If the Christians are in need of assistance to repair their churches or in any other many related to their religion, the Muslims are to assist them.

The teachings of the Prophet found in the hadith are brilliant manifestations of the mercy and justice of Islam regarding several aspects of war. Imam ‘Ali, the fourth Caliph and the First Imam of Islam, applied the rules and regulations of jihad to the letter. Before engaging in battle, he would give his officers and soldiers the following instructions:

1) Never begin a war yourself. Allah does not like bloodshed. Fight only in self-defense.

2) Never be the first to attack your enemies. Repulse their attacks, but do so boldly, bravely, and courageously.

3) Do not waste your time praising yourself and your deeds. Instead of speaking about yourself, speak about Allah and the Holy Prophet.

4) Never chase and kill those who run away from battle. Life is dear to such people. Let them live so long as death permits them to live.

5) Never kill wounded people who cannot defend themselves.

6) Never strip naked a dead man for his armor and clothing.

7) Never cut off noses and ears of dead men in order to desecrate them.

8) Never take loot or engage in arson.

9) Never molest or outrage the modesty of a woman.

10) Never hurt a woman, even if she swears at you or hurts you.

11) Never hurt a child.

12) Never hurt an old or disabled person.

As the very embodiment of Islamic ethics, Imam ‘Ali meticulously applied the rule of discrimination in battle. During a combat, Imam ‘Ali knocked his opponent to the ground. Just as the Imam was about to kill him, the man expectorated in his face. ‘Ali refused to kill the man stating that if he did he would be doing it for himself and not for Allah. The man was Amr ibn Wadd al-Amiri the most well-known hero of the polytheists whom was killed by Imam ‘Ali after a while.

When it comes to its treatment of prisoners of war, Islam is one of the most merciful socio-political and religious systems. At a time when prisoners of war were rounded up, murdered in masses, or forced into slavery, Islam insisted that captives be treated justly, fairly, and equally. As far as the Prophet was concerned, POWs were entitled to security and protection. Not only could they not be put to the sword, prisoners of war could not be chained up. In particular, Islam’s treatment of female prisoners of war differs greatly from that of other codes of war. Instead of sexually assaulted, selling, and even murdering women, as was commonly done by polytheists, Jews, and Christians, Islam encouraged Muslim men to marry them. During the time of the Prophet, taking care of female prisoners of war was considered the moral responsibility of the Muslim community. The Prophet himself took his share of the responsibility by freeing two female captives and marrying them. The Imams of Islam also did the same.

The Islamic concept of just war has been and continues to be applied by all true Muslims. The Islamic laws of jihad were applied by the Prophet, the Companions, the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, and the Twelve Shi‘ite Imams. It should be noted that Iran is currently the sole Islamic state on Earth. Rather than embrace Islamic law, most Muslim-populated countries follow political ideologies and systems borrowed from the West. For the most part, they are merely remnants of a colonial past. It is therefore important to distinguish between Islam and Muslims on the one hand, and Marxism and Arab nationalism, on the other hand. It is equally important to distinguish between the true teachings of Islam, and the un-Islamic behavior of some misguided murderous Muslims.

Considering the Qur’anic and prophetic teachings regarding jihad, the claim that Islam was spread by the sword is an erroneous as it is slanderous. In fact, it demonstrates an absolute ignorance of the early origins of Islam. An ideology requires support for it to spread. The Prophet Muhammad was merely one man who went against the grain of his nation. He lived in a nation of alcoholics, gamblers, murderers, fornicators, and adulterers. He was sent by Allah to reform them. The Prophet was a single powerless person against a nation of degenerates. If you want to spread something by the sword, you must first have a sword! Since Allah prohibited him from employing violence, the Prophet had nothing but the power of his preaching. The claim that Islam was spread by the sword violates the tenets of Islam and historical fact. If Islam was spread by the sword, which Muslim army went to East, Central, and West Africa? Which Muslim army went to Indonesia, a country with over 200 million Muslims? Although Egypt became part of the Islamic empire during the early days of Islam, its population was predominantly Christian for the two centuries that followed. Spain was a Muslim nation for nearly 800 years. Oppressed by the Visigoths, the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula actually asked the Muslims to come to liberate them. While 20% of the population embraced Islam immediately after the liberation of the Iberian Peninsula, it took approximately one century before the rest of the Christians became Muslims. If Islam was imposed by force, why is it that Muslims are a minority in India, a country which was under Islamic rule for centuries?

One should study the history of Christianity before one criticizes Islam. Christianity was spread by the sword through much of the world. Can we ignore the Crusades, the Conquest of Jerusalem, and the wholesale slaughter of its entire Muslim population? It is reported that one foot of blood flowed through the streets of the sacred city during the massacre. Can we ignore slavery? What about the Spanish Inquisition? Anyone who was suspected of being a Jew, a Muslim or a Protestant was subjected to torture, sexually abused, and then murdered. Can we forget the Conquest of Peru and Mexico? Can we ignore the dehumanization of indigenous peoples? Can we ignore the treatment that Jews and blacks have received at the hands of Christians? What about the horrors of Christian colonialism and imperialism? As any serious study can confirm, the history of Christianity is written in blood: the blood of indigenous peoples throughout the world. As any honest assessment will establish, no other social system can compare with the justice, mercy, and love of original Islam. In short, one should not allow oneself to be brainwashed by the anti-Islamic propaganda unleashed by the enemies of Islam.

Drawing from the Qur’an and the Sunnah, this study has demonstrated that Islam is not the most barbaric of religions but the most humane. It contains the most highly developed concepts of justice, love, mercy, reciprocity, and discrimination between combatants and non-combatants. Since Islam forbids indiscriminate killing, the use of weapons that are, by nature, incapable of discrimination are forbidden. When it comes to Islam, the laws of warfare are clear. Hence, any individual who, under the pretext of jihad, kills indiscriminately does so illegitimately and in clear contradiction of the Islamic laws enshrined in the Qur’an and Sunnah.

• 1. This was the first undergraduate university essay written by the author. It was submitted for a first year philosophy class at the University of Toronto in 1990. Despite its defects, it has been included in this collection of essays to demonstrate the author’s precocious intellectual development and insight. As historically minded readers will observe, the author was openly denouncing terrorism years before the rise of the Taliban and the spread of suicide bombing. The paper was given an F by the author’s prejudiced professor.